痛苦

痛苦（suffering）是构成情感现象负面效价（Valence）的基本要素。痛苦的反面是快乐或幸福等。与个人对伤害或伤害威胁的感知有关。[1]

1939年9月，波兰华沙，12岁的波兰女孩卡齐米拉·米卡在她的姐姐安娜（14岁）旁边，后者在德国空军的空袭中丧生。
摄影师朱利安·布赖恩描述当时的情景：“当我们开车经过城镇边缘的一片小田地时，我们目睹了这场悲剧，这是最令人难以置信的几分钟。七名妇女一直在地里挖土豆————他们所在的地区没有面粉，他们急需食物。突然两架德国飞机不知从哪里冒出来，向两百码外的一所小房子投下两枚炸弹。房子里的两名妇女被炸死。挖土豆的人平躺着地面上，希望不被注意。轰炸机离开后，妇女们回到工作岗位。她们必须吃东西。
但纳粹飞行员对他们的轰炸并不满意。几分钟后，他们回来俯冲到离地面不到200英尺的地方，这次用机枪扫射。七名妇女中有两名被杀。当我在给尸体拍照时，一个十岁的小女孩跑过来，站在一具遗体旁边目瞪口呆。这个女人是她的姐姐。孩子从未见过死亡，不明白为什么姐姐不再跟她说话……

痛苦通常被归类为身体上的[2]或心智上的。[3] 它可能有各种程度的强度，从轻微到无法忍受。持续时间长度和发生频率的因素通常与强度因素相结合。受苦者或其他人对痛苦的态度可能有很大差异，这取决于它被认为是可以避免或不可避免、有用或无用、值得或不值得的。

苦在各种生物的生命中以多种方式发生，经常是戏剧性的。因此，人类活动的许多领域都与痛苦的某些方面有关。这些方面可能包括痛苦的性质、过程、起源和原因和意义、相关的个人、社会和文化行为[4]、治疗、管理和使用。

痛苦与人类的意识有关，而且经常伴随着过去的经验。

造成痛苦的常见示例有：

需求和期望未满足
失去挚爱、亲友、宠物等重要人物
与社会群体的分离
来自外部的约束和限制
面对老化、疾病和疼痛等

字源

在汉语中，痛，是指肉体上的疼痛，而苦，则是来自于味觉上的苦涩感觉，将这两种感觉结合，就形成痛苦这个词。痛苦是一个概括性的形容语，肉体上产生的疼痛感受，可以称为痛苦，而心灵上的烦恼挣扎，也可以称为痛苦。

宗教对「苦」的诠释

参考数据

For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."
Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. . [September 11, 2008]. （原始内容存档于September 26, 2008）.. [2008-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （页面存档备份，存于）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."
Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.
Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. . Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.

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[1] For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."

[2] Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. . [September 11, 2008]. （原始内容存档于September 26, 2008）.. [2008-09-11]. （原始内容存档于2007-10-28）. Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics （页面存档备份，存于）: "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."

[3] Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.

[4] Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. . Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.