学徒

学徒系统出现在中世纪晚期，受同业公会和当地政府的监督。一名手艺好的业内大师是学徒的雇主，他为学徒提供食宿和培训，以此换取廉价的劳动力。大多数的学徒都是男性，但像皮匠、裁缝师和面包师这样的职业中就会有女性学徒。[1][2]他们在十到十五岁时成为学徒，在完成七年左右的学徒合同之后就可能对此领域有相当的熟悉程度了，但要在业内占据一席之地或许还要经历熟练工时期并成立自己的作坊。

后来一些大学也开始使用学徒系统培训学者，根据亚当·斯密的说法，像研究生这样需要导师监督的学位原来就算是学徒的一种。另一方面，当时一些古老城镇会使用University of smiths（铁匠协会）、University of tailors（裁缝协会）等名称来指代这些行业工会组织。[3]

• 师徒

• Modern Apprenticeships: the way to work, The Report of the Modern Apprenticeship Advisory Committee, 2001
• Apprenticeship in the British "Training Market", Paul Ryan and Lorna Unwin, University of Cambridge and University of Leicester, 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）
• Creating a ‘Modern Apprenticeship’: a critique of the UK’s multi-sector, social inclusion approach Alison Fuller and Lorna Unwin, 2003 (pdf)（页面存档备份，存于）
• Apprenticeship systems in England and Germany: decline and survival. Thomas Deissinger in: Towards a history of vocational education and training (VET) in Europe in a comparative perspective, 2002 (pdf)
• European vocational training systems: the theoretical context of historical development. Wolf-Dietrich Greinert, 2002 in Towards a history of vocational education and training (VET) in Europe in a comparative perspective. (pdf)
• Apprenticeships in the UK- their design, development and implementation, Miranda E Pye, Keith C Pye, Dr Emma Wisby, Sector Skills Development Agency, 2004 (pdf)
• L’apprentissage a changé, c’est le moment d’y penser !, Ministère de l’emploi, du travail et de la cohésion sociale, 2005
• Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship, Bert De Munck, Steven L. Kaplan, Hugo Soly. Berghahn Books, 2007. (Preview on Google books)（页面存档备份，存于）
• "The social production of technical work: the case of British engineers" Peter Whalley, SUNY Press 1986.
• "Apprenticeship in the ‘golden age’: were youth transitions really smooth and unproblematic back then?", Sarah A.Vickerstaff, University of Kent, UK, 2003
• "The Higher Apprenticeship (HA) in Engineering Technology"; The Sector Skills Council for Science, Engineering and Manufacturing technologies, UK, 2008

• Facts about Germany: Apprenticeships, Federal Foreign Office
• L'Apprenti, in French（页面存档备份，存于）
• The Construction Chart Book: The U.S. Construction Industry and Its Workers (5th Edition, 2013)