吉兹亚
吉兹亚(阿拉伯语:)是一种曾经在伊斯兰国家向非穆斯林人民(齐米)实施的人头税,[1]征税对象,通常是有体力当兵及有财力缴税的成年男子,不包括奴隶。
《古兰经》第9章29节说:「当抵抗不信真主和末日,不遵真主及其使者的戒律,不奉真教的人,即曾受天经的人,你们要与他们战斗,直到他们依照自己的能力,规规矩矩地交纳丁税。」
穆斯林统治者容许缴纳了吉兹亚税的非穆斯林居民继续信仰其原有宗教,而非穆斯林也不需服兵役及不需缴交适用於穆斯林居民的天课。
历史
吉兹亚税的起源历史是相当复杂的,原因包括:[2]
- 在古代历史文献中,「吉兹亚」一词的含义不尽相同,中世纪史家往往根据自己身处的时代对该词的定义来诠解。
- 阿拉伯征服者的征税制度并非一成不变,有时会因应时势而变更。
现代
1997年,埃及穆斯林兄弟会领导人穆斯塔法·马什胡尔提议重新向非穆斯林征收吉兹亚税,引起埃及科普特基督徒群起反对,提议后来被撤回。[5]
21世纪兴起的伊斯兰国在其占领区向非穆斯林征收吉兹亚税,并威胁处死不改信伊斯兰教又不缴交该税的非穆斯林。[6]依2014年初的规定,富有的成年男性每年需要缴交4个金第纳尔的吉兹亚税(4个第纳尔的黄金略多于半盎司),中等收入者减半,穷人又再减半。[7]2015年有人以伊斯兰国的名义在瑞典多个城市向非穆斯林发出警告,要求他们改信伊斯兰教或缴交吉兹亚税,否则就要死。[8]
参与叙利亚内战的另一主要恐怖组织努斯拉阵线也有意图将来在叙利亚创建伊斯兰国家后,向基督徒征收吉兹亚税。[9]
2014年英国政府对国内在囚极端穆斯林的潜在威胁展开调查后,发现有极端穆斯林囚犯在监狱内使用欺凌手段,强迫非穆斯林囚犯向他们缴交吉兹亚税作为保护费或改信伊斯兰教。[10]
参考数据
- 《大英百科全书》jizya词条,2011年,从 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/304125/jizya (页面存档备份,存于) 读取。
- Cahen, Cl.; İnalcık, Halil; Hardy, P. "Ḏj̲izya." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online.
- . [2011-02-05]. (原始内容存档于2013-01-14).
- Sarkar, Jadunath. . Calcutta. 1928: 249–50.
- . The Guardian. 2011-02-08 [2016-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2021-02-11).
- . BBC中文网. 2015-11-24 [2016-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2015-11-27).
- . The Telegraph. 2014-02-27 [2016-02-07]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-26).
- . Daily Mail Online. 2015-12-16 [2016-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2020-12-30).
- . The Guardian. 2015-05-28.
- . Daily Mail Online. 2015-11-01 [2016-02-06]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-25).
参考文献
- Ali, Abdullah Yusuf. . Medina: King Fahd Holy Qur'an Printing Complex. 1991.
- Abou Al-Fadl, Khaled.
. Beacon Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-8070-0229-2.
- Abdel-Haleem, Muhammad. . Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 2012, 14 (2): 72–89. ISSN 1465-3591. doi:10.3366/jqs.2012.0056.
- Aisha Y. Musa "jizya: Towards a Qur’ānically-based understanding of a Historically Problematic Term," in Transcendental Thought, November 2011.
- Lambton, Ann. . Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. 2013. ISBN 978-1-136-60521-5.
- Cahen, Claude. . 2 2nd. Brill.
- Bravmann, M. M. . Leiden Boston: Brill. 2009. ISBN 978-90-04-17200-5.
- Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East, Westview Press, Nov 1, 1999. ISBN 0-8133-3489-6
- Choudhury, Masudul Alam; Abdul Malik, Uzir (1992). The Foundations of Islamic Political Economy. Hampshire: The Macmillan Press. ISBN 0312068549.
- Dennett, Daniel Clement. . Harvard University Press. 1950. ISBN 9780674331594.
- Ellethy, Yaser. . Routledge. 2014. ISBN 978-1138800304.
- Donner, Fred McGraw (1981). The Early Islamic Conquests (页面存档备份,存于), Princeton University Press.
- Hoyland, Robert G. . Oxford University Press. 2014. ISBN 9780190209650.
- Narain, Harsh (1990). Jizyah and the spread of Islam. New Delhi: Voice of India.
- Hunter, Shireen; Malik, Huma; Senturk, Recep (2005). Islam and Human Rights: Advancing a U.S.-Muslim Dialogue. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
- H.R.H. Prince, Ghazi Muhammad; Ibrahim, Kalin; Mohammad Hashim, Kamali. (PDF). The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. 2013. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
- Shaltut, Mahmoud. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad; Ibrahim Kalin; Mohammad Hashim Kamali , 编. (PDF). War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses of Jihad. The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. 2013. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
- Kalin, Ibrahim. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad; Ibrahim Kalin; Mohammad Hashim Kamali , 编. (PDF). War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses of Jihad. The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. 2013. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
- Dagli, Caner. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad; Ibrahim Kalin; Mohammad Hashim Kamali , 编. (PDF). War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses of Jihad. The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge. 2013. ISBN 978-1-903682-83-8.
- Esposito, John L. . Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 978-0-19-511233-7.
- Stillman, Norman. . Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7.
- Shah, Niaz A. . Palgrave Macmillan. 2008. ISBN 978-0230606180.
- Goiten, S.D. "Evidence on the Muslim Poll Tax from Non-Muslim Sources", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 1963, Vol. 6.
- Walker Arnold, Thomas. . Constable & Robinson Ltd. 1913.
- Cohen, Mark R. . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2008. ISBN 978-0-691-13931-9.
- Seed, Patricia. Ceremonies of Possession in Europe's Conquest of the New World, 1492–1640, Cambridge University Press, Oct 27, 1995, ISBN 0-521-49757-4.
- Tritton, A. S. . London New York: Routledge. 2008. ISBN 978-0-415-61181-7.
- Watt, William Montgomery (1980), Islamic Political Thought: The Basic Concepts (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press).
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.